Academic Writing in English: A Course Description
Tutor: Bai Limei (bailimeinwnu@gmail.com)
Teaching Material: Self-compiled teaching material
Academic Year: First Term 2013-2014
Students: Class 1、2、3 & 4, Junior 2011
I. Aim
It is a tremendous challenge for undergraduates majoring in English as a foreign language to do research papers in English and in English-related academic areas. The difficulty lies first of all in their lack of an adequate command of the English language and the rudimentary knowledge required for research work. What is worse is that they are not well equipped with the methods and techniques of doing academic researches and writing research papers. This course is designed for the junior English majors to serve as a general reference guide to the writing of academic research papers. It elaborates upon all steps and mechanisms of academic writing ranging from the topic selection to the documentation of the paper, and provides the paper writers with rhetorical [rɪ'tɑrɪkl], referencing and formatting techniques required in accomplishing their writing tasks. This course intends to give the students some basic ideas of academic research --- its nature, value and significance, essential features, techniques and methods, to cultivate in the students a scientific attitude, a rigorous study style, a creative mind and a great courage to explore unknown academic areas, thus helping prepare the students as foreign language professionals for fierce competition and great challenges they are expected to face and take on after graduation from the university.
II. Teaching Plan
Unit 1 Overview of academic writing
Unit 2 Steps in writing a research paper
Unit 3 Choosing a topic
Unit 4 Developing an outline
Unit 5 Writing an abstract
Unit 6 Wring a literature review
Unit 7 Writing of the paper
Unit 8 Writing about literature, translation, linguistics and language teaching studies
Unit 9 Style and mechanics
Unit 10 Documentation of the paper
III. Assignment and Assessment
1. Physical attendance (20%)
2. Group discussion and activity participation (20%).
3. Final examination (60%)
IV. References
Gibaldi, Joseph. 2001. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
McCormack, J & Slaght, J. 2006. English for Academic Study: Extended Writing & Research Skills. Higher Education Press & Garnet Education.
Rudestam, K. E. & Newton, R. R. 2001. Surviving Your Dissertation. Sage Publications, Inc.
程爱民、祁寿华，2005，《英语学术论文写作纲要》，上海外语教育出版社。
田贵森等，2008，《英语专业写作》（第四册），上海外语教育出版社。
文斌，2010，《英语专业学术论文写作教程》，华中科技大学出版社。
文秋芳，2001，《应用语言学研究方法与论文写作》，外语教学与研究出版社。
杨永林等，2002，《英语论文写作研究》，中央广播电视大学出版社。
张霖欣，2008，《英语专业毕业（学术）论文写作教程，河南人民出版社。
周开鑫，2006，《英语专业学生学术论文写作手册》，外语教学与研究出版社。
Unit 1 Overview of Academic Writing
1. Defining academic writing
In its broadest sense, the term “academic writing” means a scholarly lengthy written composition exploring an idea or seeking answers to particular research questions. You may have heard the terms such as “research paper”, “term paper”, “library research paper”, “inverstigation report”, “empirical research paper”, and others. These names are often used interchangeably. In this course, a research paper can be defined as a documented report that focuses on an academic topic, and it is intended to inform the audience of the research topic, purpose, method, results, findings, conclusions and recommendations. As a research paper, it should have at least two distinctive features. First, it should reflect the nature of research: identifying problems, asking quesitons, reading for other people’s ideas, deesigning methodologies to work out the answers to the questions, and discussing the results of your findings. Second, a research paper is a piece of academic writing, therefore, it should follow the rules for academic writing.
2. Misconceptions to avoid
Ø A research paper is not “about” a subject.
Ø A research paper is not a summary of an article or a book (or other source material).
Ø A research paper is not repeating the ideas of others uncritically.
Ø A research paper is not putting together a series of quotations.
Ø A research paper is not expressing unsupported personal opinions.
Ø A research paper is not copying or accepting another person’s work without acknowledging it.
3. Major features of academic writing
Ø New in content or analysis.
Research papers are usually expected to offer something new or original. This newness could be something new in content, method, data or analytical perspective. We should avoid simple repetitons when we write research papers.
Ø Well-focused topic
Research papers or a graduation thesis for a BA degree should focus on one limited aspect of a general subject. If it is designed to establish a thesis, it should concentrate on establishing one or two main points. Avoid subjects that would lead you to compile miscellameous information. Restrict your general subject area until you arrive at something that you can explore in detail. Try to write more and more about less and less.
Ø Multiple source
Academic papers or a graduation thesis for a BA degree should show that the author has made detailed use of several different sources. Avoid subjects that would tempt you to summarize pre-assembled information from one main source. Avoid subjects that are conclusively and satisfactorily treated in a textbook or in an encyclopedia. By definition, a research paper is more than a condensation of easily accessible materials. Whatever points you make should require careful sifting and comparing of evidence from different and possibly conflicting sources.
Ø Objective in tone
The conclusion elaboratd in the paper should stay close to the evidence actually presented. In academic writing, your tone and attitude towards your subject should be serious, not ironic or flippant. Humorous, casual or conversational approaches are usually inappropriate for research papers. The research paper should be formal in style. You should not make your own personality prominent in a research paper. Avoid writing in the first-person such as I think, as I know, I believe, in my opinion… They imply uncertainty. Avoid impersonal labaels such as the researcher, the writer… to refer to the writer of the thesis. They tend to remove you entirely from your paper.
4. Components of an academic paper
Ø Title page
Ø Talble of contents
Ø Abstract
Ø Introduction
Ø Body (literature review, materials and method, results, discussion)
Ø Conclusion
Ø Liste of references
Ø Appendix
5. Major types of research
图1.1 研究的不同类型（引自秦晓晴，2003：2）
根据研究数据的来源，外语教学研究分为第一手研究（primary）和第二手研究（secondary）。第一手研究是指研究者亲自深入课堂，从学生或教师处直接获取所需要数据的实证研究或经验研究。第二手研究是指通过对间接获得的数据或资料进行研究，它可以是文献研究、内容研究等等，这类研究的特点是理论性、思辨性、综述性或者是介绍性的。
根据数据的性质和类型，外语教学；研究有定性研究（qualitative research）和定量研究（quantitative research）之分。定性研究是主要凭分析者的直觉、经验，凭分析对象过去和现在的延续状况及最新的信息资料，对分析对象的性质、特点、发展变化规律做出判断的一种方法，研究者不操纵研究背景，而是把研究背景看成是自然发生的事件、过程、相互关系。它的目的是了解在自然状态下自然发生的事情。定量研究以调查研究和实验研究为主，是依据统计数据，建立数学模型，并用数学模型计算出分析对象的各项指标及其数值的一种方法。调查研究的特点是指在研究过程中对外语学习活动和日常教学不做任何干预，只对外语教学的现状进行观察和数据收集，然后用统计方法探讨不同因素之间的关系。实验研究采用控制和操纵变量的手段，根据假设专门设计实验，使某些要观察的行为在实验的环境下更为集中地显示出来（如教学方法）。
根据不同的研究目的，外语教学研究有描述性研究（descriptive research）、探索性研究（exploratory research）、相关性研究（correlational research）和解释性研究（explanatory research）。
描述性研究是汇报外语教学诸因素的实际情况，一般不涉及不同因素和学习成绩之间的因果关系。研究者通过对事物和现象的仔细描述可以得到很多发现，因此描述性研究在教育研究中是基础性的，具有重要作用。描述性研究可以是定量研究，也可以是定性研究；可以是综合性的，也可以是分析性的；可以采用归纳式，也可以采用演绎式；既可以检验已有的假设，也可以用来提出假设；既可以使用定性数据，也可以使用定量数据。通常，描述性研究不对变量进行干预和控制，描述的通常是自然状态下发生的现象。可以解答社会现象“是什么”的问题，它能对社会现象的状况、特点和发展过程作出客观、准确的描述。探索性研究是一种可行性研究（feasibility study）或试点研究（pilot study），它是研究者对某一研究问题没有确切把握时进行的初步的小型研究。当研究者接触一个新课题，或者研究某个尚无人涉足的社会现象时，通常要进行探索性研究。相关性研究是要发现不同因素之间是否有着相互联系或相互依存的关系。解释性研究不仅要探讨不同因素之间是否存在因果关系，而且要解释为什么他们之间有这种关系，以及一种因素如何作用于另一种因素。解释性调查研究：可以解答“为什么”的问题，能说明社会现象发生的原因，预测事物的发展后果，探讨社会现象之间的因果联系。
从收集数据的时间上来看，调查研究又可以分为横向研究（cross-sectional study）和纵向研究（longitudinal study）。横向研究是在短的相同时间段内，同时考查不同年龄组群被试者的语言发展特点和发展水平，并进行横向比较，以了解随年龄增长被试组间的变化。纵向研究是在较长的时间系列内对被试个体或同一被试组群进行定期的系统的考查，以了解随时间进程而发生的连续变化，纵向研究也叫追踪研究。
Unit 2 Steps in Writing a Research Paper
1. Choosing a topic and narrowing it down
Sometimes instructors will assign a specific topic, usually you have to select a topic that interests you. The first thing to do when looking for a research topic is to find a subject area that interests you. Selecting a good topic is not easy. It must be narrow and focused enough to be interesting, yet broad enough to find adequate information for your research.
There are two frequently used ways to narrow down a topic. One is to ask questions about the key elements in the topic, the other is to limit it by categories. The goal of the process is to focus on one specific area of the topic to the study. If your topic seems too broad, consider the following questions:
l Is there a specific time period you wnt to cover?
l Is there a geographic region or country on which you would like to focus?
l Is there a particular aspect of this topic that interests you?
2. Asking research questions
It is essential to develop research questions that you are interested in or care about in order to focus your research and your paper. How do you develop a usable reseach question? Choose an appropriate topic or issue for your research, one that actually can be researched. Then list all of the questions that you’d like to answer yourself. Choose the best question, one that is neight too broad or too narrow.
3. Finding and evaluating sources (Data collection and evaluation)
There are a variety of sources you can use to create your research paper. Your primary places for locating sources will be librarys, computer sources (CD-ROMs etc), the internet etc. Using sources to support your ideas is one characteristic of the research paper that sets it apart from personal and creative writing. Sources come in many forms, such as magazine, journal articles, books, newpapers, videos, films, computer discussion groups, surveys or interviews. The important thing is to find and then match appropriate valid sources to your own ideas.
It is not enough just to find sources. You need to ask both specific as well general questions to determine whether your source answers your research question. There are four questions to ask when evaluating sources:
Ø How well does the source answer the research question?
Ø Is the information provided by an expert?
Ø Is the source valid? Is the information presented objectively form an unbiased viewpoint?
Ø Are there a variety of sources?
4. Formulating a thesis statement
The thesis statement or hypothesis is the “answer” to your research question, is usually a single sentence that declares the paper’s main idea. When you are writing a research paper, there should be one complete sentence that expresses the main idea of your paper. That sentence is often called the thesis statement. Another way to look at it is, once you have come up with the central question of your paper, the thesis is an answer to that question. The thesis statement, although is closely related to topics, is not the same thing as your topic, but what your are saying about your topic. For example, you have topics like this:
l The communicative language teaching approach
l The use of textbooks in language classrooms
l Metaphor
l Linguistic taboos
l American literature of the 1920s
Then, you should ask some questions related to the topics in your mind:
l Has the communicative language teaching approach affected actual classroom activities?
l How does the use of textbooks in language classrooms affect English language teaching>
l What are the effects of metaphorical use of language in communication?
l Do linguistic taboos serve any functions?
l What were the major trends in American literature of the 1920s?
Based on the questions, the thesis statements can be written like this:
l Communicative langauge teaching facilitates the teaching of reading in English classrooms.
l Although textbooks play a central role in English langauge classrooms, there are crucial diffferences in the ways in which textbooks are creatively used.
l Metaphors at different levels add power and vividness to the language used in communication.
l Linguistic taboos used under appropriate contexts fulfill different communicative functions.
l Most American literature of 1920s depicts a growing anxiety regarding the dehumanizing effects of industrialization。
The basic requirements for a thesis statement are as follows:
Ø It starts the paper’s subject;
Ø It reflects the paper’s purpose;
Ø It includes a focus;
Ø It uses specific and concise language.
5. Writing a thesis proposal
A thesis proposal is a sort of feasibility study report of your research work, it aims to inform your advisor and review committee of the purport of your research and the central idea of your paper, and to convince them that you are doing the right thing. So it is a step that bridges your choice of the topic, its approval by your advisor and review committee, and your writing of the paper.
The thesis proposal usually contains the following parts：
l Introduction:
1) what is the subject you have discovered?
2) What methods do you intend to adopt?
3) Why do you take interest in this subject?
4) How are the source materials you have read or mean to read related to the subject?
l Methods:
1) How do you plan to do the research?
2) What methods do you intend to adopt?
3) What are the procedures you mean to follow?
l Materials:
1) What resources, concrete or abstract, physical or intellectual, do you plan to use for your research?
2) Where are these resources available?
l Discussion:
1） What is the relationship between your anticipated results and the previous acievements of others?
2） What prectical and/or theoretical value do you think your research might have?
3） What are the limitations of your methods and materials, and the difficulties you may possibly encounter?
4） How do you plan to overcome these difficulties?
l Preliminary bibliography: Here the bibliography is preliminary, because it permits of additions and omissions as your research and research paper writing proceed.
6. Developing an outline
An outline is an organizational tool used by writers to gather thoughts so that they can be clearly laid out in an essay or a book. By creating an outline for a piece of writing, the author ensures that all the ideas are presented in a logical, clear order, and that they flow well, drawing the reader to a logical conclusion. To sum up, an outline can
l aid in the process of writing;
l help you organize your ideas;
l present your material in a logical form;
l show the relationships among ideas in your writing;
l construct an ordered overview of your writing;
l define boundaries and groups.
7. Writing and revising of the paper
Writing of the first draft is the composition of the text. The most important thing to do is to express thoughts and ideas in a clear and structured way. Make sure that you stay on topic, maintain logical arguments, and include transitions in the writing process.
Revison is needed before you finish writing your research paper. The goals for revision are：
l to examine the paper to find out mistakes in the writing;
l to enable an effective and accurate presentation of ideas;
l to make the paper as good as it can be by making certain that the arguments are strong and the written expression is accurate.
8. Finalizing of the paper
Unit 3 Choosing a Topic
1. Criteria of good topics
Ø Topics that you truly like
The process of choosing your topic, designing your research, collecting and analyzing your data, and writing up your report will be full of frustrations. It is your intense love and strong desire that will temper all these frustrations. Do not choose a topic in an hurry just to fulfill your assignment.
Ø Topics that are well-focused
Never try to approach an ambitious and broad topic in one short paper. Adequately restriciting and focusing the topic usually results in a high quality paper.
Ø Topics that are significant
The word “significant” means that the topic you have chosen is worth investigating. You can offer or contribute something new, or original about the topic. Or you may have a different perspective or opinion on the topic.
Ø Topics that are researchable
“Researchable” means that you can collect data or information to answer your research questions.
Ø Topics with enough data
It should be a topic on which you can find enough data or relevant materials in library, because no research starts from zero.
2. Major sources of research topics
Ø Where research topics come from
1) Theories of literature, liguistics, language teaching and learning, and translation studies lectured or discussed in your classes and textbooks.
2) Professors or course instructors.
3) Your own experiences and interests.
4) Other people’s research.
Ø What areas and subjects to explore
In the area of language, you may do pure language study of English on its structure and elements such as phonetics, morphology (vocabulary), syntax (grammar), semantics, etymology, rhetoric, stylistics, pragmatics, discourse, comparison of English dialects, all branches of English linguistics and their comparisons with the Chinese counterparts (cross-cultural communication); or on its use such as ESP (English for special purpose), methods, techniques, changes, approaches, etc.
Literary studies, including British, American, Australian, Canadian, South-African literature, comparisons between them, and their comparisons with Chinese literature. You may apply literary theories and critical methodology to the study of writers, works, literary trends and schools, literary periods, literary criticism, etc.
Translation studies, including theories and mechanics, written translation and oral interpretation. In this area, you can research into the origin and growth of translation practice and theory, different theoretical schools and their doctrines on translation, standards and criteria for the quality of translation, methods and techniques for doing translation of various kinds, mechanics for translation of diverse-style language, teaching of translation as a basic language skill,etc.
International studies, including any English-speaking country’s history, geography, economy, law, foreign plicy or national culture and character, involve synchronic and diachronic survey of diplomatic relations, international politics, political, military, economic and other related aspects of some countries or regions, etc.
In the area of language teaching and learning (TESL (Teaching English as a Second Language) or TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language)), you may explore the psychological mechanisms of langauge teaching and learning, study the methods of teachers’ teaching and students’ learning of the English language, compare the acquisition of the mother tongue with that of a foreign language, discuss the improvement and application of modern teaching approaches and facilities, or even make comments on and evaluate text-books in use, etc.
What is also worth mentioning is cross-culture study, which is a subject inclusive of comparisons of religions, philosophies, habits and customs of different countries and races, as well as means of intercultural communication.
Ø What topics to choose
A topic too broad is one that is too general, one on which it is hard to focus your study or to finish a paper of the required length within the stipulated time. A topic too narrow is one that is too specific, hard to enlarge upon or develop your arguments about. It is usually trivial or insignificant.
A topic too technical is one that deals with a highly technical or specialized problem which is beyond your audience or readers. It usually requires technical definitions and explanations that could be very monotonous, and very likely to distract the audience’s attention or bore them to death.
3. Suggested steps for choosing a topic
l Choose a subject area according to the requirement of your course for a research paper, or your school for your graduation thesis;
l Identify a research interest or research topic;
l Narrow the topic down as much as possible;
l Review the literature on the topic as completely as possible;
l State the problem in a question form;
l Translate or turn your research question into a thesis statement.
As an English major, you can write your graduation thesis on a topic from any of the following subject areas of: (1) English literature; (2) English linguistics; (3) English language teaching and learning, and (4) English to Chinese and / or Chinese to English translation studies. After you decide your subject area, you should first of all go to library or read an introductory book about the subject area to broaden your understanding. When you have a broader view of the area, you know how you can narrow down. The process can be clearly illustrated as an upside-down tree diagram:
Example for choosing a topic
SHAPE \* MERGEFORMAT 
Task:
Drawing an upside-down tree diagram and answer the following question:
Begin with a general subject area that your are considering for your graduation thesis. First you broaden your understanding of the subject area and then reduce it in scope at least four times. Draw an upside-down tree diagram for the process of your choices. Then brainstorm the topic you are considering and answer the following questions:
Ø What is your general topic?
Ø Why do you chose this topic?
Ø Key questions (What do you want to find out about this topic?)
Ø What is your thesis statement?
Ø What is your specific title?
Unit 4 Developing an Outline
Outlining is an important and often necessary step in academic writing and it serves four basic functions:
l To present a logical, general description;
l To summarize schematically;
l To reveal an organizational pattern;
l To provide a visual and conceptural design of the writing
1. Structure of a paper
Generally, the structure of a paper consists of three parts:
l Opening: introduction
l Middle: Body
l Ending: Conclusion
Typically, the opening part introduces the topic or thesis of the paper and indictes its subject and tone. It sometimes provides some background information so that the reader can follow what you are going to discuss in the paper. It may also inform the reader of the methods you will use to deal with the subject. A good introduction immediately arouses the reader’s interest and impresses him or her as worth further reading. The introduction part has no fixed length. In the introduction part, usually we must clearly state the purpose, significance and the thesis of our paper.
The middle or body is the main part of a paper and contains all the ideas and the major and minor supporting details. In a longer piece of academic writing, such as a book, the body may comprise more than one chapter. Each chapter concentrates on one main idea to expound or verify the thesis, with relation to other chapters. Within the chapter, there will be different levels of parts, with the first level giving the main idea, and second level minor ideas or facts to support the first, and so on, depending on the scope, the depth, and the complexity of the subject and discussion. We should brainstorm and list all the ideas we want to include in this part, organize our work by grouping ideas together that are related to each other.
The conclusion, usually consisting of one to several paragraphs, brings the paper to a logical and satisfactory end. It restates the thesis, summarizes the main ideas, suggests solutions to the questions discussed, or indicates the significance of your study.
2. Conventions for drawing an outline (Formats of outlines)
An outline can use either alpha-numeric (usually with Roman numerals) form or a decimal form. The former is named MLA style and the latter APA Style.
In MLA style, an outline usually adopts a conventional format of numbered and lettered headings and subheadings to indicate the different levels of parts. The sequence in each major section of the paper is as follows:
Roman numerals
Capital letters
Arabic numerals
Small letters
Arabic numerals within brackets
Small letters within brackets
I. First main topic
A. First subordinate idea
1. First supporting detail
a. First minor supporting detail
b. Second minor supporting detail
2. Second supporting detail
B. Second subordinate idea
1. First supporting detail
2. Second supporting detail
3. Third supporting detail
II. Second main topic
……
The other format is based on APA style, in which a special system of Arabic numerals is used, which is also named a dicimal form:
1. First mian topic
1.1 First supporting detail
1.1.1 First supporting detail
1.1.2 Second supporting detail
1.2 Second subordinate idea
1.2.1 First supporting detail
1.2.2 Second supporting detail
2. Second subordinate idea
……
3. Organizing ideas and writing the outline
3.1 Sorting out your notes and materials
To develop an effective outline which will guide you through the writing process, you need to review all the notes and materials you have gathered and sort them out to find the meaningful connections among your ideas and the information, e.g.:
l Causes and effects (direct and indirect; important and minor; apparent and hidden; far and near; current and historical etc)
l Similarities and differences
l Part and whole
l Order of importance
l Main ideas and supporting evidence
l Pros and cons
3.2 Organizing your ideas
The important thing to do for planning or outlining your paper is to set your goals: what do you want to achieve: to inform, to persuade, to propose, to prove, to correct some misconception, or to shed light on some obscure phenomenon? Once you have set your goals, you need to decide how to organize your ideas and information to realize your goals by making use of the following questions:
l In what order are you going to present the ideas and infromation?
l How will you introduce your subject?
l How will you develop and expand your writing?
l Are you going to use logical analysis, statistics, and quotations from authoritative sources?
l How will you conclude?
3.3 A draft (working) outline and a final (fomal) outline
3.3.1 Draft outline
A draft outline (also called working outline or scratch outline) at the initial stage could be in any form as long as it can help you think and plan your writing. It is only an informal list of topic and subtopics, which you are thinking of covering in your paper. You may list facts and ideas without a well-arranged order. The working outline can be revised as you discover new material and get new ideas that ought to go into your paper. There are many ways of making a draft outline, and it varies from subject to subject and from person to person.
Although a draft outline may often look immature or incomplete, it is useful when you are searching for sources and brainstorming during the early stages of the research process, it is helpful to organize your ideas and shape these ideas into the paper design.
3.3.2 Formal outline
As your thinking and planning matures, you may revise your draft outline again and again, adding some new items, dropping some old ones, changing the order of parts, or moviing a certain item from one part to another, until you are satisfied. It is often the case that during the planning stage new ideas and thoughts may occur to you and you may see new relationships between the items or parts. Then you may regorganize the parts and items to make them logically connected with each other. The process will certainly help you not only to further clarify your ideas and gradually formulate the thesis statement but also to organize your idea and supporting information into an effective paper with logical reasoning and convincing argument.
4. Types (patterns) of outlines
4.1 Topic outline
There are two commonly used patterns for formal outlining: the topica outline and the sentence outline. The topic outline adopts paralledl word or phrases as headings and subheadings to organize the different levels of parts; no punctuation is used after entries.
Sample of a topic outline
A Stylistic Analysis of The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
1. Introduction
2. Stylistic analysis as a critical school
3. Leech & Short’s approch
4. A stylistic analysis of the Great Gatsby
4.1 A general overview of the story
4.2 Analysis
4.2.1 Lexical level
4.2.2 Grammar level
4.2.3 Figure of speech
4.2.4 Cohesion and context
5. Conclusion
4.2 Sentence outline
A sentence outline uses complete and often paralled sentence as headings and subheadings; correct punctuation should be used after each entry. A sentence outline presents a more detailed overview of work including possible topic sentences, is easier and faster for wring the final paper.
Sample of a sentence outline
A Stylistic Analysis of The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
1. Introduction
In this part I will mainly introduce F. Scott Fitzgerald’s unique place in American Literature. I will then discuss the stylistic significance of his stories. Finally, the aim of the thesis and the method of the study will be introduced
2. Stylistic analysis as a critical school
By introducing background information on stylistic analysis as a critical school, the feasibility of the activities we are to engage in in the paper will be shown.
3. Leech & Short’s approch
A method of analysis proposed by Leech & Short is introduced as the starting point of the present study.
4. A stylistic analysis of the Great Gatsby
4.1 A general overview of the story
Through a brief review on the content and theme of The Great Gatsby, the writer points out the artistic effect of the whole and makes accordingly selective use of the checklist suggested in the previous chapter.
4.2 Analysis
4.2.1 Lexical level
The verbs, adjectives and certain vague words and expressions of the text are examined respectively.
4.2.2 Grammar level
An analysis of sentence tupes and subordinate clauses is conducted.
4.2.3 Figure of speech
Phonologica schemes, together with the writer’s use of figurative languages, metaphors and similes in particular, are scrutinized.
4.2.4 Cohesion and context
The writer’s prolific use if the definite article as a cross-referential device is explored.
5. Conclusion
Tell the difference in the writing style of F. Sott Fitzgerald compared with that of other writiers, together with an overal account of his distinctive authorial style.
4.3 Pargraph outline
In this type of outline, every section is a paragraph, which provides a summary of the main parts of the outline and contains a number of sentences.
5. Tips on drawing an outline
l Number the heardings and sub-headings in order, using the required numerals and letters as shown above;
l Indent sub-headings to represent the hierarchical ideas;
l Keep topics of each rank in paralled form. That is, nouns should be made parallel with nouns, verb forms with verb forms, adjectives with adjectives, and so on;
l Make these items which are of equal significance have comparable numeral or letter designations; an A is equal a B, a 1 to a 2, an a to a b etc. coordinates（同等的人或物）should be seen as “having the same importance”;
l Avoid overlapping of topics;
l Fobid such headings as:
(1) Introduction
(2) Body
(3) Conclusion
Task:
Have a discussion on the format and organization of the following sample
outlines, then write an outline for your own chosen topic in either form you
like.
Sample One
Thesis: Different choices of modality value by people with certain relative status in conversation realize different interpersonl functions.
1. Modality yhas three ranks of value, and people take three kinds of relative status in conversations.
2. Modality value taken by people with correspoinding relative status in conversations realizes orrespoinding interpersonal functions.
A. People with high relative status take high modality value.
B. People with equal relative status take medium modality value.
C. People with low relative status take low modality value.
3. People take modality value which does not correspoind with their relative status in conversations to realize special interpersonal functions.
A. People with high relative status take medium or low modality value.
B. People with equal relative status take high or low modality value.
C. People with low relative status take high or medium modality value.
Sample Two
Thesis: Second language learners of different age choose and use different learning strategies, so teachers should take age variable into account in the instruction of learning strategies.
1. Children prefer using receptive learning strategies at the beginning.
A. Children employ the strategy of using formulaic expressions to construct their knowledge of the target language.
B. Children employ the strategy fo memorization to reinforce what they learn.
C. Children employ the strategy of repetition ot practise simple structures of the target language.
2. Adolescents develop their L2 preformance by using social strategies.
A. Adolescents employ the strategy of cooperation to develop their oral communication ability.
B. Adolescents employ the strategy of clarification to verify what they learn.
C. Adolescents employ the strategy of compensation to resort to their native language.
3. Adults develop their L2 performance by using metacognitive strategies.
A. Adults employ the strategy of self-management to careate positive learning conditions.
B. Adults employ the strategy of self-monitoring to correct their own speech for accuracy in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
C. Adults employ the strategy of self-evaluation to check their current level.
4. Taking into account age variable, teachers can make instruction of learning strategies effective.